فصلنامه تازه های علوم شناختی
سال بیست و پنجم شماره 2 (پیاپی 99، تابستان 1402)

Preserving the cognitive ability of the elderly is a common issue of concern among researchers and health policymakers (1). Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is a concerning condition indicating an elderly person's cognitive abilities are less than expected (3-5). Researchers interested in aging research strive to prevent the progression of cognitive problems as much as possible by identifying the cognitive problems of the MCI elderly as early as possible or, if this goal is not met, to compensate for their cognitive problems by developing rehabilitation packages (11). Evidently, cognitive rehabilitation packages cannot be provided without first understanding the cognitive problems of the elderly with MCI (15). According to the previous studies, the majority of those studies conducted for developing cognitive rehabilitation packages for the elderly have used the results of quantitative studies as the basis for choosing cognitive tasks (6, 11, 14, 16-19); this is even though in these studies, the actual view of the elderly themselves, or people who know them well, has never been asked. The current study used a qualitative research method to identify the cognitive problems of the Iranian elderly with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) to address these limitations. Besides, the results can be used to develop a cognitive rehabilitation package for the Iranian elderly with MCI.

The current study was a qualitative thematic analysis study that followed the method proposed by Braun and Clarke (27). The statistical population consisted of all Iranian elderly with MCI. The study sample included 14 elderly subjects with MCI diagnoses, seven relatives of elderly MCI patients (informants), and five specialists in providing mental health services to the elderly (Two psychiatrists, two psychologists, and one nurse), for a total of 26 subjects. The subjects were all Kerman city residents, and the study occurred between the summer and fall of 2021. Data Saturation was used to determine the adequacy of the sample size. The NUCOG test and a semi-structured in-depth interview were used as research tools (28). Guba and Lincoln's four recommended criteria (i.e., Credibility, Dependability, Confirmability, and Transformability) were used to assess the trustworthiness of the research data (31).
The data analysis process was carried out in six comprehensive steps:

Familiarization with the data,
Generation of initial codes,
Search for themes,
Review of the identified themes,
Definition and naming of themes,
Production of the final report.

As Figure 1 illustrates, the cognitive problems of the Iranian MCI elderly fall into two broad categories: Main problems and side problems. The main cognitive problems include four themes a) memory problems, b) attention problems, c) executive function problems, and d) language problems. Besides the main problems, another theme under the title of anxious mood has also been extracted (side problems).

Figure 1. Final thematic map related to the cognitive problems of the Iranian MCI elderly

A more in-depth investigation revealed that the theme of memory problems in the Iranian elderly is more of an episodic memory type; this means that their most common type of forgetfulness is related to forgetfulness in daily affairs. In terms of attention, they have problems in all four general areas of attention, i.e., shifting attention, selective attention, sustained attention, and divided attention. The theme of executive function problems in Iranian MCI elderly was so diverse that it included problems in all three general areas of executive functions, i.e., cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, and working memory. In addition, the theme of linguistic problems in the Iranian MCI elderly manifested in difficulty finding words. Furthermore, Iranian elderly with MCI demonstrated a high level of emotional and mood problems, prompting the extraction of another theme from the data under the heading of anxious mood theme.

The current study's findings are consistent with previous research that has shown that the MCI elderly have problems with memory (6-8), attention (6-8), executive functions (7-9), and language (7, 8). An intriguing finding from the current study was that the problems of the Iranian elderly were significantly more prominent in some aspects of a cognitive domain than in others. For example, in the field of memory, the problems of the Iranian elderly were mainly of the episodic variety (and not other types of memory such as procedural, semantic, and the like). Similarly, regarding language, the Iranian MCI elderly had more difficulty finding words than other problems (such as Neologism, understanding, and the like). As a result, relying on such findings is critical for developing rehabilitation packages for the Iranian MCI elderly. Another intriguing finding was that, while the study was designed to identify cognitive problems in the elderly with MCI, the majority of subjects raised issues related to mood and emotional aspects of their lives due to the MCI disorder. This prompted the researchers to propose another theme; i.e., anxious mood; something more than the cognitive problems that the current study focused on (the main problems). Indeed, it appears that cognitive rehabilitation programs tailored to the Iranian elderly should include tasks that address both their primary (cognitive) issues, as well as their secondary issues (anxious mood).
Ethical Considerations
Compliance with ethical guidelines
The ethical principles included in this study were the subjects' arbitrary participation in the research, adherence to confidentiality principles, and informed consent. Additionally, the study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the University of Isfahan (Approval ID: IR.UI.REC.1400.49).
Authors' contributions
This article is part of Mohammad Ghaderi Rammazi's PhD dissertation at the University of Isfahan (IranDoc tracking code: 1617543). All authors participated in the ideation, writing, editing, and preparation of the article's final version.
Funding
This research was funded with the support of the Cognitive Science and Technologies Council (CSTC; tracking code: 10567).

Acknowledgments
The authors with this express their gratitude to all the participants and people who facilitated the implementation of this research in any way.
Conflicts of interest
This article contains no conflicts of interest.

In today's world, the acceleration of changes and developments at the social level is observed due to the creation of new knowledge and information requiring training in all kinds of life skills (1, 2). For this reason, trying to strengthen all kinds of thinking skills for today's humans can bring significant results in individual and social fields. Meanwhile, problem-solving is the highest form of thinking, one of the cognitive skills that can be used as an effective intellectual tool due to human empowerment in creating new and effective solutions in dealing with various problems and challenges of life (4).
Based on this, the concept of social problem-solving has found a valuable place in recent studies. Social problem-solving is one of the strategies of adaptation to the environment through which people try to find effective and adaptive responses to their situations in life (9). The social problem-solving model of D’Zurilla et al. (2002), revised by D’Zurilla and Nezu (12), is one of the most comprehensive. In this perspective, social problem-solving is a dynamic, multifaceted process. It encompasses two primary, independent elements: one's attitude towards the problem and the skills employed to solve it (known as the problem-solving style). In another model, social and interpersonal problem-solving skills include four components of cognitive skills: defining the problem and its regulation, determining the goal, providing alternative solutions and implementing the solution and checking, and the problem-solving performance of people is based on the result of this process (19). From what comes from the definitions and concepts related to social problem-solving, it is believed that this structure has a culture-dependent nature. Based on the concept of the process of the problem from Foucault's point of view, it is cultural, spatial, temporal, and fluid (13).
Examining these definitions shows that among the theories and definitions of social problem solving, there is no specific definition from the native point of view that can refer to the components of this fundamental skill based on the context of Iranian-Islamic culture. This even thoughconcepts such as collective wisdom, consultation, and problem-solving have always had a valuable place in Iranian culture (‎15). In the meantime, the field of literature, as a valuable field in Iranian culture, can provide an effective space for researchers to identify and explore the dimensions of psychological and sociological concepts and structures in today's life based on exploration in this field. Unquestionably, stories are one of the most essential tools for moral and social education. Social and moral communication and dialogue take place in the story, and put children and teenagers in a specific intellectual framework. Therefore, this platform has a great capacity to teach ethics, social relations, and a specific lifestyle (16).
Based on numerous types of research in the educational literature, the stories of Kalileh and Demneh book is recognized as works of interest in the field of children and adolescents. Kalileh and Demneh book is famous and prestigious not only in Iran but also in the history of world literature due to its unique story-educational feature (19). Drawing from a variety of research studies, storytelling based on generalizations and using stories in education has effectively improved social skills, critical openness, questioning, and reasoning skills (20, 21). According to what was said about the existing gap in the lack of definition of the dimensions of the social problem-solving structure in the local culture, and according to the effects of social problem-solving on the individual and interpersonal levels, social problem-solving skills need new components and contents to cause personal and social growth and prevention of psychological and social damage. Therefore, the current research was carried out  to answer the question, what are the components of the problem-solving solving model in Kalileh and Demneh? Is the designed model valid?

The current research was in the field of basic research in terms of its goal, and in terms of the data collection method, it was qualitative based on Grounded theory. The statistical population included the full text of the one-volume edition of Kalileh and Damneh by Mojtaba Minoui (the book of Kalileh and Damneh has 15 chapters, the stories of which are told in an allegorical form). In line with the research objectives, the story was identified as the primary unit of analysis. Kalileh and Demneh's storieswas reviewed several times, and a general perception was made of them. Then, the resulting codes were divided into semantic units after careful reading several times, and these semantic units were put together according to the concept, and the core codes were categorized. Finally, the combination of axial codes led to the main components and classes of social problem-solving. This model was given to five experts and researchers in the field of cognitive sciences and life skills to check the validity of the social problem-solving model extracted from Kalila and Demneh. All experts considered the presence of each component of social problem-solving as necessary. The codes extracted from the text of the stories were given to one of the experts in the field of life skills and familiar with the book of Kalileh and Demneh to ensure the reliability of the coding. Besides, the degree of consensus about the codes between the researcher and the evaluator was calculated based on the Kappa coefficient (0.95). Statistical analysis was performed in Maxqda 2020 software.

Analyzing the Kalileh and Demneh’s  stories to discover the components of social problem-solving showed that thinking and decision-making, interpersonal interaction, behavioral methods in dealing with the problem, attitude to the problem, consultation, and emotions. Assotionally, its management have been identified as the main components in the social-problem solving. The component of thinking and decision-making includes evaluating the situation/person, taking responsibility, thinking from multiple angles, thinking about the consequences, and making quick judgments; the interpersonal interaction component includes effective communication, empathy, and active listening; the component of behavioral methods in dealing with the problem, including the logical method, the impulsive and aggressive method, and the avoidant-passive method; the attitude component to the problem includes two positive attitudes and negative attitudes; the component of consulting includes the dimensions of consulting with wise and knowledgeable people, not consulting with ignorant and deceitful people and asking for help, and the component of emotions and its management includes the dimensions of aggressiveness management, assertiveness, stress, and anxiety management, tolerance of uncertainty and failure, and maintaining peace.

Social problem-solving skill is at the highest cognitive level and is one of the most valuable educational goals. Therefore, social problem-solving can be defined as a multidimensional cognitive and emotional ability in a collective context, done with internal thinking and seeking help to choose the most effective solution based on emotional self-control. Despite the importance of the concept of social problem-solving, one of the limitations of the current research is the needs for similar domestic and foreign research related to the research topic. It is suggested that the multidimensional definition of social problem-solving from the perspective of Kalileh and Demneh's stories can be used by researchers as a basis for designing new measurement tools and also for designing social problem-solving skill training packages.
Ethical Considerations
Compliance with ethical guidelines
The researchers did not use any clinical examination on humans and animals. All ethical principles have been observed.
Authors' contributions
The first author wrote the draft paper. After reviewing and applying some corrections by other authors, the final version was compiled under the responsibility of the second author.
Funding
This research has been done at the authors’ personal expense.
Acknowledgments
This article is part of a PhD dissertation with the ethics code IR.ATU.REC.1401.064 at Allameh Tabataba’i University. The authors appreciate all experts and professors for their advice.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

Education is a significant social and educational foundation for any country, with the role of school principals being crucial in the advancement of social systems. Schools serve as hubs of feedback that echo throughout the entire social structure. Consequently, when principals effectively execute their roles, it can lead to overall societal reform (2). Managers require a variety of traits to enhance their decision-making and relationship-building capabilities. One such vital attribute is social knowledge (5). This concept encompasses a broad spectrum of behaviors aimed at comprehending the emotions, mental states, and psychological processes inherent in social interactions. It includes areas like emotion processing, social understanding, and the theory of mind (6). Social cognition is also self-knowledge, knowing other people (inferring their mental states from their tone, facial and body expressions, empathy, understanding the meaning of their behavior and social signs), social adaptation, and applying rules and knowledge related to social affairs in order to interact with each other. It includes the type of self and the management of one's emotions in interpersonal relationships (7). On the other hand, having psychological capital enables people to cope better with stressful situations,  be less stressed, to have high strength against problems,  have a clear view of themselves, and be less affected by daily events (10). Psychological capital is defined as a person's understanding of himself, having a goal to reach a position, and being stable in the face of problems (11). Therefore, the presence of interventions that help improve school principals' cognitive status can play an essential role in their personal and professional lives. One of these interventions that has recently attracted the attention of researchers is the treatment based on acceptance and commitment, which is one of the new psychological treatments. It is considered that integrating the interventions of acceptance and commitment, and mindfulness helps people achieve a lively, purposeful, and meaningful life (17). This therapeutic approach is a model based on scientific principles for enriching and empowering human life, which helps humans to achieve satisfaction in facing the challenges of life (18). The lack of emotional, psychological, and social skills and abilities makes managers vulnerable in the face of issues and problems and exposes them to all kinds of mental, social, and behavioral disorders.
On the other hand, professional development, promotion, and empowerment of school principals to improve their social awareness and psychological capital is an inevitable necessity. In addition, the results of this research can help experts, officials, and educational planners design appropriate and coherent programs to improve development and empowerment. The administrators of the country's schools should help perform these programs. Therefore, the present study was conducted with the aim of determining the effectiveness of acceptance and commitment therapy in the social cognition and psychological capital of managers. Additionally, this study aims to seek to answer the question of whether the therapy of acceptance and commitment is effective in the social cognition and psychological capital of managers.

The present study was  semi-experimental with a pre-test-post-test design with a control group and a follow-up phase. The research population included all principals of schools in Yasuj in the academic year 2021-2022. From the target population, thirty eligible people were selected by the available sampling method. They were placed in two experimental (15 people) and control groups (15 people) and were evaluated by Nejati et al.'s social cognition scale (2017) and Loutans et al.'s psychological capital (2007). Then, the experimental group participated in acceptance and commitment-based therapy during eight sessions of 90-minutes, two sessions a week, but the control group did not receive any training during this time. SPSS version 22 software and analysis of variance test with repeated measurements were used for data analysis.

The results revealed that the scores of social cognition and psychological capital in the experimental group increased significantly in the post-test phase. Accordingly, these effects remained significant in the follow-up phase (P<0.001). Therefore, the results showed that acceptance and commitment therapy had a significant effect on improving school principals’ social cognition and psychological capital.

Based on the obtained results,  acceptance and commitment-based therapy can be considered as a suitable method to increase school administrators’ and staff’s social recognition and psychological capital. Therefore, it is recommended that therapists and clinical psychologists use the treatment method based on acceptance and commitment along with other methods to improve psychological characteristics, specifically improving the social cognition and psychological capital of clients. The results of the research can help specialists, officials, and educational planners of the country in designing suitable and coherent programs to improve the development and empowerment of school principals’ psychological state (social cognition and psychological capital).
Ethical considerations
Compliance with ethical guidelines
The present study is the result of an independent research work, and the ethical considerations of the research included obtaining informed consent, stating the principle of confidentiality, confidentiality of personal information, freedom of the subjects to participate in the research, and informing them of the results of the research.
Authors' contributions
The first author was responsible for the initial writing of the article, the second author participated in the implementation of the intervention and data collection, the third author participated in data entry in the software, and the fourth author participated as the responsible author and in the role of a statistical analyst.
Funding
The authors carried out the present study at  personal expense.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express our gratitude to all the principals of schools in the five districts of Yasuj who have helped implement this research.
Conflict of interest
There is no conflict of interest among the authors.

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is the most common childhood neurodevelopmental disorder associated with chronic attention deficit and hyperactivity symptoms. Its prevalence has been reported up to 8.9. Children with this disorder are at high risk and suffer from problems and defects in social skills, interpersonal problems, and conduct disorder. This disorder's adverse disorder are not only visible in the education process, but also cause irreparable personal and social damage to the child's relationships with others. Social cognition is the central core of social relations and the socialization of people, and empathy is one of its most essential aspects. Considering social cognition deficits such as empathy that exist in ADHD, timely rehabilitation interventions such as mindfulness and transcranial electrical stimulation seem necessary. The present study aims to compare the effectiveness of transcranial direct current stimulation and mindfulness on empathy in children with ADHD.

The current research was conducted as a multi-group experimental design with pre-test and post-test with control and follow-up. The population consisted of students with ADHD referred to rehabilitation and psychology clinics. Forty-five children aged 7-12 years with the initial diagnosis of ADHD by a psychiatrist, who were given a clinical interview and Conners assessment for more assurance, were simple randomly assigned to two experimental groups and one control group:15 students in the mindfulness experiment group with 15 training sessions, 15 students in the transcranial direct  current stimulation group 12 sessions every other day, by two narrow bands that are closed around the participant's head and the anode with the current intensity (1 milliampere). The duration (10 minutes) was fixed on the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and the cathode electrode was placed on the left arm, and 15 students were included in the control group. The effectiveness of mindfulness intervention and transcranial direct current stimulation on empathy was investigated. The 55-question Empathy Questionnaire of Ayung et al.'s 2009 was used.

According to Table 1, the groups were almost homogeneous in gender and age variables. The results of the chi-square test also showed that the difference between the two groups in terms of gender and age was insignificant (P>0.05). The results of repeated measures analysis of variance to compare three groups in empathy in the three stages of pre-test and post-test and follow-up based on Greenhouse-Geisser correction are reported in Table 2.
Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the participants by group
Variables
TDCS
Mindfulness
Control
P-Value

Gender
Boy
11 (3.18)
8 (3.13)
11 (3.18)
0.57

Girl
4 (7.6)
7 (7.11)
4 (7.6)

Age
7 to 9 years
8 (3.13)
7 (7.11)
8 (3.13)
0.98

10 to 12 years
7 (7.11)
8 (3.13)
7 (7.11)
According to the results of Table 2, the difference between the scores of the empathy component (P<0.001) was significant in the three stages of the research. Furthermore, the mean empathy scores in both experimental and control groups were significant (P<0.001). The results showed that nearly 21% of the individual differences in empathy are related to the differences between the three groups. In addition, the interaction between research stages and group membership was also significant in the empathy variable (P<0.001). In other words, the difference between empathy scores in the three stages of the research in three groups was significant. According to the results obtained in the table above, the difference between the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up stages was significant. Therefore, the results of pairwise comparisons of the averages of the three stages of the research using the Bonferroni test are reported in Table 3.
Table 2. The results of Mixed ANOVA to investigate the difference between groups in empathy in pre-test, post-test, and follow-up
Variable
Time
Time*Group
Group

F(2, 84)
P
η2
F(2, 84)
P
η2
F(1, 43)
P
η2

Empathy
32.84
<0.001
44
20.38
<0.001
0.49
5.51
0.008
0.21

The results of this study indicate that two interventions (Table 3), mindfulness and transcranial direct current stimulation, are able to improve empathy in children with ADHD. However, transcranial direct electrical stimulation was more effective than mindfulness intervention in improving them. Similarly, the change in empathy scores continued in the follow-up phase compared to the pre-test phase and was significantly different, indicating the stable effect of these two treatments.
Table 3. The results of the post-hoc Bonferroni test to compare three groups of empathy
Group
Stage
I-J
P

Control
Pre-test-post-test
0.4
0.635

Pre-test-follow-up
0.867
0.058

Post-test-follow-up
0.467
0.268


Mindfulness
Pre-test-post-test
-2.067
0.002


Pre-test-follow-up
-2
0.002


Post-test-follow-up
0.067
1


TDCS
Pre-test-post-test
-7.467
0.001


Pre-test-follow-up
-6
1.024


Post-test-follow-up
1.467
0.71

In general, based on the results of this study and previous studies, it can be said that mindfulness intervention and transcranial direct electrical stimulation can be used as a complementary solution along with other intervention programs to improve social cognition functions such as empathy in children with ADHD. Nevertheless, therapists and researchers should remember that the success of these interventions can vary depending on the context. Therefore, it is recommended that the therapists who use these interventions pay enough attention to choosing the right place for the electrodes appropriately and in line with the treatment goals.
Ethical Considerations
Compliance with ethical guidelines
In implementing the research, ethical considerations were followed according to the instructions of the Faculty of Medical Ethics Committee, the Code of Ethics of the Research Institute of Cognitive Sciences No.13. IR.UT.ICSS.REC.1399.010 was received. Informed consent was obtained from the parents of all students before starting the study. Besides, the participants were coded, and the principle of confidentiality was respected.
Funding
This article is taken from the PhD dissertation of Neda Rafiei Tari, Department of Cognitive Psychology, Faculty of Cognitive Psychology, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran. The university provided all the financial resources for this research.
Authors’ contributions
All authors contributed equally to preparing all parts of the research.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank all students with ADHD and their parents for cooperating in the study. They would also like to thank and acknowledge the efforts of the teachers, clinicians, and specialists who helped during this study.
Conflict of interest
The authors declared no conflict of interest.

Pathological gambling has captured the attention of researchers in recent years. Gambling craving is one of the fundamental and predictable factors of relapse.
Despite the abundance of craving research, most existing evidence has focused on a biomedical approach. Thus,  evidence concentrated on the physiological similarities between gambling disorder and substance use disorder rather than on the potential and unique features of gambling craving. Therefore, the study has not been specifically designed to provide an in-depth exploration of the cognitive processes involved in the initiation and persistence of gambling cravings. To our knowledge, most research in the field of gambling craving transferred what is known about drug craving into gambling craving, from scale development to hypothesis.
The literature assessmentreveals that craving remains a source of much dispute, and the evidence clearly suggests that a greater understanding of this concept has substantial implications for the prevention and treatment of many addictive disorders. Accordingly, the current study aims to predict the impact of gambling-related cognitive biases and gambling severity on gambling craving, with drug use history as a moderator.

In this study, 345 participants were evaluated with the gambling craving scale (GACS), gambling severity index (PGSI), and gambling-related cognitions scale (GRCS).
The study questionnaire has two parts and was distributed electronically; the return rate of questionnaires was 60%. After data preprocessing, 337 individuals remained in the study. It is noteworthy that due to the factor loading being lower than the cut-off point (R<0.7), the third and ninth questions of the GACS were excluded from the model. In addition,  due to Cronbach's alpha being lower than the cut-off point (α<0.7), the gambling desire variable was removed from the model becauseof the minimal number of unanswered questions in some variables (less than three). SPSS-26 and PLS-4 softwares were used for data analysis. Confirmatory factor analysis was performed on the 36 remaining model questions.

The present study aimed to estimate how gambling-related cognitive biases and the intensity of gambling will affect cravings for gambling, with drug use history acting as a moderator. The path analysis revealed that both gambling cognitions and gambling severity directly predicted gambling craving. In this study, 64.1% of respondents were females, and 35.9% were males. Moreover, the mean age was 31.06±9.23, and 48.9% were over 30 years; 63% were unmarried, and 37% were married. Regarding education, 4% had a degree under a high school diploma, 22.5% had a high school diploma, 5.1% had a post-highschool diploma, 27.5% had a Bachelor's, 32.2% had a Master's, and 8.7% had a PhD Furthermore, 39.5% were smokers, and 14.5% had a history of drug use. Among the participants, 50.4% had scores above 6 on the PGSI.
Data sphericity was examined (KMO=0.905 and P=0.001). Reliability and convergent validity were applied by Cronbach's alpha test (α>0.7), composite reliability indices (CR>0.7), and average variance extracted (AVE>0.5), and discriminate validity was calculated by HTMT (HTMT<0.9). R square of craving was average (r=0.377). The results showed that a drug use history increased the predictive power of gambling craving (r=0.376 to r=0.407). This study has five hypotheses, mentioned with significance, respectively; 1) Gambling cognitions affect gambling craving (β=0.622, P=0.001). 2) History of drug use affects gambling craving (β=-0.182, P=0.261). 3) Gambling severity affects gambling craving (β=0.441, P=0.004). 4) Drug use history has moderating effects on the relationship between gambling severity and gambling craving (β=-0.087, P=0.031). 5) Drug use history has moderating effects on the relationship between gambling cognitions and gambling craving (β=-0.355, P=0.688).
Gambling severity and gambling cognitions were direct predictors of gambling craving while having a considerable impact on craving. However, this predictive power increased among subjects with a drug use history and is claimed to be in the upper middle range. Unquestionably, those who have used drugs in the past who gamble report more acute cravings than those who have never used drugs. Additionally, a history of substance abuse cannot predict gambling desires, individually or in combination with cognitive deficits. Gamblers may suffer more extreme cravings if they have severe pathological gambling in addition to cognitive impairment. These findings suggest that the association of cognitive defects and the severity of gambling with a history of drug use increases the power of prediction.
According to the results of the current study, a systematic review that examined the role of desire in GD revealed that the tendency to gamble was connected to the severity, episodes of gambling, and pursuit of this condition. According to the literature, gambling craving is a component that affects gambling behavior. Because of the potential link between the severity of GD and craving, several writers have proposed craving as a diagnostic criterion for GD. The studies included in this systematic review, despite the differences in the structures, the sampled populations, and even the measurement scales, have almost aligned results. These overall findings indicate the importance of the craving in relapse and response to treatment in behavioral and substance addictions. Nevertheless, contrary to the findings of the current study, the results of a study that examined craving in drug users showed that continuous psychological stress is a predictor of changes in cognition, which is a predictor of craving.

Research on craving is necessary to develop new strategies for improving response to treatment and durability in treating individuals with GD. This structure is considered during therapy and evaluations; if necessary, alarm interventions should be carried out to control it.
Ethical considerations
Due to respect for privacy, the participants' identity information was not recorded, and all participants were assured that the information received would only be used for research purposes. Participation in this research was voluntary, and the participants were allowed to withdraw from the participation at any stage. This study was conducted with all ethical principles and the ethical code IR.ZUMS.REC.1399.449 of Zanjan University of Medical Sciences.
Authors' contributions
In this study, Mohsen Dadashi and Peyman Hassani-Abharian were responsible for choosing the topic, designing the study, defining the concepts, and writing the article. Rogheyeh Najafi-Dehjalali was responsible for data collecting, data analysis, and writing the initial text. Hojjatullah Farahani was a consultant for data analysis and took a share in writing the article, and Alireza Faridi took part in writing the article.

Funding
This study reports a part of the PhD dissertation of Rogheyeh Najafi-Dehjalali, supported by founding of Zanjan University of Medical Sciences.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to all the respondents and Mohsen Moradi, who helped us conduct this study. In the end, this study was taken from a dissertation entitled "Investigation of cognitive, psychological and addiction complications of gambling, along with the validation and validation of questionnaires measuring the intensity of dependence, addiction, and cognitive behavioral complications of gambling in Iran" with the code 4193 of Zanjan University of Medical Sciences.
Conflict of interest
All authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Sexual assault is defined as a sexual act in which the victim is forced to engage against their will. Sexual trauma can have a devastating impact on both the victims and their family members (1). The aftermath can lead to severe, long-term consequences for survivors, increasing their risk of developing psychiatric disorders by nearly four times. (2). Studies have shown that nearly 70% of survivors of sexual assault experience significant levels of trauma, and 45% report symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (3). Women, in particular, are at greater risk of developing PTSD than other trauma victims (4), a trauma-related disorder requiring direct or indirect exposure to a traumatic event or prolonged exposure to stressful events (5).
Given that the psychological consequences of sexual assault pose a threat to the mental health of individuals in society, preventative and educational interventions need to be expanded, and families and social networks need to be strengthened to prevent it. Victims of sexual abuse should be identified and treated, and various therapeutic approaches have been used to improve the psychological status and emotional disorders of survivors of sexual assault. However, extensive studies focusing on integrated transdiagnostic and solution-focused approaches have not been conducted, particularly regarding women who are victims of sexual assault both inside and outside of Iran.
Transdiagnostic therapies encompass a heterogeneous group of interventions that target a more comprehensive range of disorders and can be used to treat multiple disorders simultaneously (13). Although rooted in cognitive-behavioral tradition, they emphasize emotions and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. Emotional experience and response to emotions are the main basis of the transdiagnostic approach. Research findings indicate that interventions that address emotion regulation deficits can help reduce risky sexual behaviors and subsequent risk of re-victimization (15). Aguilera-Martin et al. (2022) also evaluated the cost-effectiveness and efficacy of individual transdiagnostic therapy versus group therapy for emotional disorders and found that both methods are effective, but group therapy is more cost-effective and less flexible (18).
Solution-focused brief therapy is also an integrated model that uniquely visualizes the client’s resources, reasons for living, and crisis time (18). There is no diagnosis, insight enhancement, or analysis of the past in this therapy. Instead, clients are encouraged to pay attention and take different actions. Solution-focused therapists help clients think about what they can do differently. As soon as a solution is identified, clients and therapists move step by step towards it (19). Leveraging its adaptability and a history of resolving clients’ issues, this approach serves as a solution to a broad range of individual problems. It's also applicable to nearly every clinical problem noted by healthcare professionals. These include trauma treatment (21), treatment for survivors of sexual abuse (1, 22), and treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder (26).
Therefore, considering that sexual abuse can cause severe and irreparable harm to victims and their families and hold back society from dynamism and prosperity, the current research aimed to examine the effectiveness of these two approaches on post-traumatic stress disorder in female sexual abuse survivors in this study. The main question in this research is whether there is a significant difference between the transdiagnostic intervention and the solution-focused approach in reducing post-traumatic stress in sexual abuse survivors.

This semi-experimental research was expanded with two experimental groups and one control group, which was done using pre-test, post-test, and follow-up methods. The research population consisted of all women who had been victims of sexual assault and had been referred to psychological clinics in Ahvaz, Iran, in 2022. Among them, three groups of 12 individuals were purposefully selected and randomly assigned to two experimental groups and one control group. The first experimental group received 10 weekly 90-minute integrated transdiagnostic intervention, and the second experimental group received 7 weekly 90-minute sessions of solution-focused interventions in individual sessions. Conversely, the control group did not receive any intervention during this time. After completing the training, a post-test was conducted one week later, and a follow-up test was performed one month after the post-test. The Foa et al. (1993) questionnaire was used to evaluate post-traumatic stress. This scale includes 17 items on post-traumatic stress symptoms in TR-IV-DSM and was analyzed using SPSS-22 software. Considering the experimental design and the research question, the statistical method used in this study was descriptive statistics, including calculating the mean and standard deviation and using repeated measures analysis of variance to determine the significant differences between the mean of the experimental and control groups' independent variables.

Before conducting repeated measures analysis of variance, the following conditions must be met to ensure the validity of the results. One of the assumptions of the repeated measures analysis of variance is to examine the homogeneity of variance-covariance matrices, for which Box's test was used (P<0.05, F=1.73, Box's M=4.11). The significant level of the Box's test is greater than 0.05, indicating that the variance-covariance matrices are homogeneous. Levene's test was used, which was not statistically significant, to examine the homogeneity of variance among the three groups in pre-test, post-test, and follow-up tests. Additionally, normality test results (P>0.05) indicate that the assumption of normal distribution and homogeneity of variances is met. Therefore, according to the results of the Box's, Kolmogorov-Smirnov, and Levene's tests, the assumptions of repeated measures analysis of variance are met. However, Mauchly's test is statistically significant, indicating the unmet sphericity assumption. Therefore, the Greenhouse-Geisser correction is used. Accordingly, repeated measures analysis of variance was used to compare the effectiveness of transdiagnostic intervention and solution-focused approach on post-traumatic stress in the experimental and control groups in pre-test, post-test, and follow-up tests. The results showed that the time factor (F=71.75, P<0.001) was significant, but the group factor (F=1.11, P=0.34) was not significant. Therefore, a significant difference was found between at least two-time points (pre-test, post-test, or follow-up). Table 1 shows the results of the Bonferroni post-hoc test to determine the effect of interventions on the research variable at different measurement stages. The comparison of mean differences between the pre-test and the post-test and between pre-test and follow-up test in experimental group 1 and experimental group 2 was significant, but the difference between post-test and follow-up test was not significant. This indicates the significant effect of both transdiagnostic intervention and solution-focused approaches on post-traumatic stress in sexual abuse survivors in the post-test stage and its continuity in the follow-up test stage. On the other hand, in the control group, all comparisons were not significant.
Table 6. Post-hoc results of the Bonferroni test for comparing the three groups at different measurement stages




Posttest-Follow up
Pretest-Follow up
Pretest-Posttest
Group
Variable


Mean difference
Standard error
Mean difference
Standard error
Mean difference
Standard error




13.08*
1.08
11.75*
1.43
1.33
0.74
Exprimental 1
PTSD


8.91*
1.08
9.41*
1.43
0.50
0.74
Exprimental 2


1.08
1.08
0.58
1.43
0.50
0.74
Control












*0.05>P

The research results have shown that these two treatments effectively reduce post-traumatic stress in victims of sexual assault to some extent. Therefore, it is recommended to hold counseling and psychological workshops titled integrated transdiagnostic interventions and solution-focused approaches to help these clients and assist them in living a better life.
Ethical Considerations
Compliance with ethical guidelines
All the subjects received information about the research. They were assured that all information would remain confidential and only be used for research purposes. Furthermore, the patients were assured that if they did not want to participate in the research, it would not lead to the termination of medical services in that center. In order to respect privacy, the details of the subjects were not recorded. Informed consent was obtained from the participants prior to conducting the research, and the researchers observed ethical considerations during the study. Notably, this research has an ethics code with the identifier IR.UMA.REC.1400.027 at the University of Mohaghegh Ardabili.

Authors’ contributions
Asad Asadi Hasanvand and Esmaeil Sadri Damirchi: Involved in selecting the subject, the study design, and the definition of concepts. All authors searched literature and research background. Asad Asadi Hasanvand: Collecting and analyzing data. Asad Asadi Hasanvand, Hossein Ghamari Kivi, and Ali Sheykholeslami: Writing and preparing a draft. All the authors discussed the results and participated in the article’s final version.

Funding
No financial assistance has been received from any organization.

Acknowledgments
The present study is based on a PhD dissertation in counseling from the University of Mohaghegh Ardabili. The authors would like to express their gratitude to all individuals who assisted us in conducting this research.
Conflicts of interest
The authored declared no conflict of interest.

The cerebral cortex of mammals comprises six layersbetween the soft gray matter and the white brain's white matter. The thickness of its subgroups also varies in different cortex regions. The histology and distribution of dendrites and axons also show significant variations in different cortex regions. Three main thalamic pathways feed the primary visual cortex (V1) and have a unique position in receiving and distributing sensory input compared to other areas of the visual cortex. It plays a role as the first center for visual information processing in the cerebral cortex. The information that enters the visual cortex from the outside world includes complex visual scenes that need to be analyzed and broken down. Neurons in the primary visual cortex transmit information about the surrounding environment and visual stimuli to higher brain regions with great precision and detail. The type of stimulus significantly affects the information present in the output signal.
Local field potentials (LFPs) are electrical potentials generated by local electric charges distributed in an extracellular conducting medium. A better understanding of LFPs can be useful in the interpretation of non-invasive human studies such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), oxygen-dependent signals, electroencephalography (EEG), and event-related potential (ERP) signals. Local field potentials may vary in different cortical areas and layers. Recent studies suggest that LFPs in high-frequency ranges may originate from a limited cortical area, contrary to previous assumptions. These signals are measured from local neuronal populations recorded by an extracellular electrode. Cortical LFPs are believed to bepredominantly generated by subthreshold membrane potentials in layers 2.3, 5, and 6. Recording LFPs is easier than spike activity and can be used in neural prostheses.
In 2015, a study was conducted on the columnar organization of the visual cortex in the spatial phase (19). Kozai et al. investigated methods and parameters for quantifying multi-unit recordings and local field potentials (20). Martin-Vazquez et al. analyzed independent components extracted from local field potential activity recorded during motor movement with rewards in multiple depths of the motor cortex to investigate their role in motor learning (21). An accurate understanding of the properties of local field potential signal responses in different layers of the cortex is crucial for future use of these signals in neural prosthetics (22). Although local field potential studies have recently received attention (23-27), there has yet to be a systematic study on the response properties of local field potentials and their relationship with neighboring neuron properties (12). The main goal of neuroscience is to understand how populations of neurons are organized in different cortical areas and layers.
In this study, the primary visual cortex of macaques was investigated. Local field potential responses were simultaneously evaluated in all cortical layers using a 24-channel electrode. By presenting a half-degree black square stimulus and recording the response signal, the response range in different layers was investigated, and the extent of visual spread was calculated using only one electrode instead of multiple electrodes. In addition, the peak and trough time and amplitude were examined to investigate the entry and exit of information.

Data Acquisition
The experiment was conducted on macaque monkeys, and the data were recorded at the Alessandra Angelucci Laboratory at the University of Utah. The raw signals were continuously recorded at a sampling rate of 30 kHz using a 128-channel system. It is common to filter the local field potential signals to highlight the desired activity (28). The effect of a low-pass filter on a completely inactive neuron depends on the distance between the soma and the input site and the membrane time constant. This indicates that dendritic morphology plays an essential role in frequency filtering and that pyramidal cells with their long dendrites are particularly affected by low-pass filters (29). Digital filters such as Gaussian filters (30), low-pass filters, Butterworth filters (30-34), and zero-phase filters (30) are used in the analysis of local field potential signals. The raw recorded voltages were filtered (1-100 Hz, second-order Butterworth filter) and sampled up to 2 kHz to obtain local field potentials.
Receptive Field Mapping
The receptive field of neurons in each column of the primary visual cortex was manually identified to determine their approximate locations. Subsequently, black squares measuring 0.5° were presented within the visual field spanning 3*3°, precisely in the approximate location of the receptive field. This process identified the exact location of the receptive field for neurons within the cortical column.
Visual Stimulus
Black squares measuring 0.5° were presented within a field of view spanning 3*3°. A 24-channel linear electrode with a contact distance of 100 micrometers and a contact diameter of 20 micrometers, specifically the V-Probe type manufactured by Plexon, Texas, was employed to record local field potentials. Each stimulus within the network of these 36 blocks was presented for 500 milliseconds. The experiment was repeated between 5 to 15 times to ensure reliability and gather sufficient data.

Local field potential signals hold great significance in neurophysiology research and are instrumental in diagnosing neurological disorders and abnormalities within the human body. In this section, this study presents the investigation findings into the response of these signals in macaque monkeys to a visual stimulus presented in a 36-square grid.
Initially, the current study assessed the layers using current source density analysis. Subsequently, this research analyzed the Minimum Response Field (mRF) behavior pattern in different layers, along with the neighboring areas, utilizing the response range derived from the local field potential signal. This study focuses on analyzing the propagation of the local field potential signal. By identifying the peaks and troughs within different layers, the researchers further explore the timing and intensity of information entry and exit.
Given the pivotal role of local field potential signals in comprehending brain information at the cognitive level, it is crucial to study their spatial accuracy and gain a deeper understanding of how these signals are processed.

Figure 1. Local field potential response to visual stimulus presented at the minimum receptive field
Figure 1 (A) shows the current source density of local field potential at the minimum receptive field in the layers. The color corresponding to the sink and source is shown in the figure legend. The x-axis shows time, and the y-axis shows the depth of the cortex. Figure 1 (B) indicates the local field potential response at the minimum receptive field to the presented stimulus. The upper, middle, and deep layers are indicated in the Figure 1. The blue dashed line indicates the stimulus presentation time (0 milliseconds), and the pink dashed line demonstrated 50 milliseconds after the stimulus presentation.
Response Range
Calculating the peak and trough times and values were extracted by calculating the first and second derivatives and the sign of the local potential field signal. As can be seen, this parameter evaluates the distance between the minimum and maximum values of the local potential field signal in the range under investigation (0-200 milliseconds).
The response pattern is uniform in the minimum receiver field and its surrounding cells in the layers, and in the minimum receiver field, it has the maximum value in terms of range compared to its surrounding cells. As can be seen, as we move from the upper layers towards the middle layers, the response range decreases and then increases again upon reaching deeper layers. Based on the results of the Kruskal-Wallis statistical test on the investigation of the response range across layers for the minimum receiver field and the P-value obtained from this test, indicatively, a statistically significant difference was found in the response range component among primary visual cortex layers.
Visual Spread
How far can a local field potential signal spread around the recording site? Visual spread can describe this concept for us. In this section, this study investigated the visual spread layer using black square stimuli. Undeniably, various factors affect the development of visual spread. The noteworthy approach was to use a vertical electrode and move the location of the stimulus instead of the electrode location. The obtained results showed that layer 4C has the least visual spread among the layers, and this value increases, movingtowards the superficial and deep layers.
Signals have notable peaks in the upper and middle layers, while notable troughs were observed in the deeper layers. The value of the signal at the peak or notable trough within the range of 0 to 200 milliseconds, was chosen to calculate the visual spread of the signal. Clearly, this selection is related to peaks in the deeper layers and troughs in the upper layers.
Nauhaus et al. used a Gaussian function to approximate the exponential shape of the signal's inflection point (29). Katzner et al. fitted a Gaussian function to determine the orientation selectivity of stimuli in V1 (26). Xing et al. developed a method for estimating the spread of the signal with its domain at the peak of deviation (27). The current study used the domain of the signal at the peak of deviation, estimated the visual spread of local field potential signals within 0-200 milliseconds, and plotted the visual spread for all stimuli presented in all 36 networks. In calculating the degree of visual spread, this study only used one electrode, unlike previous studies that required simultaneous use of multiple electrodes.
Peak and trough time and amplitude.
To accurately examine the flow of information in response to the provided stimuli, it is crucial to analyze the peaks and troughs formed in the local field potential, serving as indicators of information-containing locations. By calculating the first and second derivatives and analyzing the local field potential signal sign, this study could extract the timing and values of the peaks and troughs.
Observing the line associated with the first trough, representing the primary sink, revealed a decrease as we moved from the upper layers to the middle layers, followed by an increase in the fifth layer and a subsequent decrease in the sixth layer. The lowest value was observed in the sixth layer, indicating that information enters the sixth layer first, then the middle layers, and finally, the upper and fifth layers.
The behavior of the secondary sink, represented by the second trough highlighted in bold pink in the figure, differed from that of the first trough. The flow of secondary information first occurs towards the upper and deeper layers and then towards the middle layers. In terms of value, the first trough exhibited the smallest magnitude. The second trough had negative values, while the first peak had positive values.
Statistical analysis using the Kruskal-Wallis test was performed on the data. The resulting P-values indicate a statistically significant difference among the layers, both regarding the timing and range of occurrence for the peaks and troughs.

This study investigated the effect of a black square stimulus presented in the primary visual area of a monkey using a multi-contact electrode. By analyzing the local field potential signals, this research examined several important aspects of the visual cortex, such as response range, visual extension, and peak and trough characteristics in different layers. The analysis of the response range revealed significant variations across layers. The highest amplitude was observed in the minimum receptive field, while the surrounding areas exhibited a similar pattern with a lower amplitude. This characteristic can be utilized to determine the location of the receptive field by examining the local field potential signals. The observed changes in the response range across different layers underscore the specialized role of each layer in extracting specific visual information.
The current study examined the extent of visual spread in different layers with its dependence on the location of stimulus presentation in a grid of 36 squares. By fitting a Gaussian function to the significant peaks or troughs observed in these 36 squares, this study could quantify the width of the Gaussian curve, which represents the degree of visual spread. Layer 4C, known for its limited visual spread, plays a crucial role in early visual processing tasks such as motion detection and spatial perception. Conversely, layers that exhibit a broader visual spread are involved in processing more intricate visual attributes, such as color and shape, with greater precision. These aspects could be explored in future studies focusing on these specific topics.
The troughs in the local field potential signal represent information entry, while the peaks signify information exit. The changes in polarity of the local field potential serve as an indicator of neural activity. To analyze the input and output of information, extracting the components associated with polarity and examining them across the cortical layers is necessary. By observing differences in the timing and magnitude of peaks and troughs across these layers, this study can gain insights into the flow of information between them. These observations highlight the intricate interplay of excitatory and inhibitory processes, as well as feedback mechanisms within the visual cortex.
This study significantly advances our understanding of the organization and functioning of the visual cortex, shedding light on unique characteristics exhibited by different layers. These findings contribute to a broader comprehension of the mechanisms involved in visual information processing. Utilizing local field potential signals extends beyond this study, encompassing applications in the implantation of brain-computer interface chips, neural prostheses, and the analysis of other signals, including electroencephalography signals. Furthermore, these signals are becoming increasingly prevalent in research and clinical settings, enabling investigations into a wide array of cortical and subcortical disorders, such as paralysis, epilepsy, and cognitive impairments.
Ethical Considerations
Compliance with ethical guidelines
All experiments were conducted following approved protocols by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee at the University of Utah and the guidelines of the NIH. The monkey was initially anesthetized with ketamine (25 mg/kg, intramuscularly) and then maintained under anesthesia with isoflurane (2%) during the procedure. Vital signs were monitored throughout the surgery, including body temperature, electrocardiogram, oxygen saturation, and blood pressure.
Authors' contributions

Fereshteh Khodaei: Valuable assistance in analyzing and interpreting data, preparing a draft of the article, or reviewing and revising it.
S.H. Sadati: Valuable assistance in analyzing and interpreting data, preparing a draft of the article or reviewing and revising it, approval of the final version for publication, responsiveness to all aspects of the research – Supervisor.
Reza Lashgari: Valuable assistance in analyzing and interpreting data, preparing a draft of the article or reviewing and revising it; approval of the final version for publication, responsiveness to all aspects of the research – Supervisor.


Funding
The authors declare they have not received any financial support for conducting this research.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to the Alessandra Angelucci Laboratory for their assistance in conducting and improving the quality of this research.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.

With the advent of modern technologies, customers have become more informed patrons and influential reviewers, who are responsible for the success or failure of a business. In this research, it is demonstrated that as long as a business adopts a customer-based strategy, taking advantage of its customers, it will earn more income. Concentrating on customers as the primary strategy of the business, the firm could attain non-financial values like trust and loyalty, which leads to the growth in financial values like sales and revenue.

Ontology defines a common term for researchers who need to share information in specific areas. The ability to interpret unrelated and unplanned events, is one of the biggest signs of success for a powerful manager of an organization. For business growth, there is an essential need for tools to deal with this issue. Although various ontologies in business have been proposed so far, none of them have been designed with a cognitive approach. The purpose of this study is to address the concept of strategic business plans with a cognitive ontology approach to provide a basis for new management tools.

This research proposed to design a cognitive ontology model to develop a business strategic plan that associates customer metrics with a conventional business model, determines the relationship between components, and substantiates the growth of the financial values.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a debilitating mental illness with symptoms typically manifesting during childhood and adolescence. Quantitative electroencephalography (QEEG) is a favored brain mapping technique for investigating psychiatric disorders due to its accessibility and ease of use. Spectral features of QEEG, particularly differences in neural activity across frequency bands and brain regions, may underlie certain diseases. This study investigates the performance of a machine learning algorithm using spectral features as input to provide insight into the neural activities associated with OCD.

This analytical cross-sectional study obtained EEG signals from healthy controls and OCD patients in a closed-eyes condition using a 21-channel cap. After noise removal via independent component analysis (ICA), features were calculated, augmented by 1-minute EEG segmentation, and used as input for the machine learning algorithm. Statistical tests were used to compare features between groups.

The study included 42 participants, 27 OCD patients, and 14 healthy controls. All features followed a non-normal distribution. The Mann-Whitney test revealed no significant differences between groups for all features (p>0.05) except for frontal beta (p<0.002). Using 10-fold cross-validation, the machine learning algorithm achieved an accuracy of 82.1%, with a sensitivity of 83.3% and specificity of 80.0%. The false discovery rate (FDR) was 11.8%.

In the studied population, there were no significant differences between OCD patients and healthy controls for any of the investigated features except for the frontal beta feature. However, the machine learning algorithm accurately detected 82.1% of patients, which was comparable to the performance of other features and imaging methods reported in previous studies.

The present research was conducted with the aim of identifying the cognitive competencies of primary school principals. Qualitative approach and Grounded Theory (GT) method were used in this research. The field of research included university professors specializing in cognitive education who were working in the academic year 1400-1401, and 25 people were interviewed in a targeted manner and based on the principle of saturation. A semi-structured interview was used to collect data. The validity of the interviews was checked using the criteria of acceptability, transferability and reliability. Validity of data was done through quality tape recording and documentation, recording, writing and interpreting them, hand writing, blind coding and agreement between expert coders in the field of qualitative research. In order to analyze the qualitative data, Glazeri's interpretive analysis method and open, axial and selective coding process were performed. The cognitive competencies of elementary school managers were identified in 10 categories and 37 concepts. Cognitive action, mental representation, self-awareness and individual development, psychological capital, language and linguistic abilities, neuro cognition of emotions, social cognition, neuro-centered leadership, awareness of neurocognitive sciences and principles, perceptual and mental ability are formed the competence categories.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of a teaching model based on the depth of knowledge on the level of cognitive complexity of learners in reading and writing.

In this study, was used a quasi-experimental design of pre-test, and post-test with control and experimental groups. The independent variable had two levels. The first level consisted of a group that used the teaching model based on the depth of knowledge and the second level was a group that used the usual teaching method. The sample size of this study included 46 people fifth-grade male students in Famenin Sity that were selected by random cluster sampling; 23 people were in the control group and 23 people were in the experimental group. The measurement tool was a researcher-made test of the cognitive complexity of reading and writing (based on fifth-grade Persian lessons). The reliability coefficient of the test was calculated to be 0.88. In this design, first, a pre-test of the cognitive complexity of reading and writing was performed for both groups. Teaching in the experimental group was done using a model based on the depth of knowledge for 4 months and the students in the control group were taught these courses in the usual method.

After the implementation of the design, a post-test of cognitive complexity of reading and writing was performed in both groups and the results of data analysis using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) showed that there is a significant difference between the two groups. And this difference showed the positive effect of the knowledge depth model on the development of learners' cognitive complexity in reading and writing.

Curriculum planners, textbook authors, and teachers can use the model of teaching based on the depth of knowledge to increase the level of cognitive complexity of learners.

This study aimed to validate Cardillo's metaphorical package (2010) and its application to obsessive-compulsive disorder sufferers and normal people.

The research was conducted in two phases. The first phase of the project involved the validation of the metaphor package from the point of view of experts. To this end, taking the study of Cardillo et al. (2010) into account, 208 basic words were selected and given to 40 evaluators. A total of 455 literal, conventional metaphorical, and novel metaphorical sentences were then compiled and evaluated by twelve experts. In the second phase, the sentences were examined among people suffering from obsessive-compulsive disorder and non-obsessive-compulsive disorder. The research was of the comparative causal type. The statistical population of the research included all patients diagnosed with obsessive compulsive disorder who were referred to Saba Clinic and Ibn Sina Hospital in Mashhad, and a comparison group of normal individuals selected via convenience sampling (20 people in each group). The data were analyzed using a one-sample t-test, Felis Kappa coefficient, intraclass correlation, and the analysis of variance.

The results indicated that there was a satisfactory level of agreement between the evaluators and there was an appropriate degree of intracategory correlation. Furthermore, the comparison of the normal individuals and people with obsessive-compulsive disorder revealed no significant differences in familiarity, imageability, and virtuality across all three groups of literal, conventional metaphorical, and novel metaphorical sentences.

The compiled metaphor package has a high level of content and criterion validity and can assist in identifying and determining the level of understanding of the dimensions of metaphors.